The apple is the pomaceous fruit of the apple tree, species Malus domestica in the rose family (Rosaceae), and is a perennial. It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits, and the most widely known of the many members of genus Malus that are used by humans.
The tree originated in Western Asia, where its wild ancestor is still found today. There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples, resulting in a range of desired characteristics. Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock.
At least 55 million tonnes of apples were grown worldwide in 2005, with a value of about $10 billion. China produced about 35% of this total. The United States is the second-leading producer, with more than 7.5% of world production. Iran is third, followed by Turkey, Russia, Italy & India.
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The saying, "an apple a day keeps the doctor away" has some basis in fact, as apple pectin holds preventive activity in cancer and cardiovascular disease. Preliminary evidence suggests a positive relationship between lung function and consumption of five or more apples per week (Butland, et al., 2000). An inverse association may exist between lung cancer risk and foods containing quercetin, found in high concentrations in apples (Le Marchand, et al., 2000).
Apple pectin is the soluble fiber fraction of the apple fruit. Pectin comes in liquid or dried form and the source is the solid fruit residue with 10-20% pectin in the dried mass (Fleming, 2000). The pectin is extracted from the dried residue at pH 1.5-3 and at temperatures ranging from 60-100[degrees]C.
Known Medicinal Constituents
The most well-recognized and evaluated medicinal constituents found in apples include:
* Quercetin and other flavonoids
* Pectins
* Tannins
* Vitamins, especially ascorbic acid (3-30 mg/100 g)
* Fruit acids, chiefly malic acid
Indications for Use
Apples and apple pectin are indicated for use in the following health challenges:
* Impaired lung function
* Lung cancer
* Colon cancer
* Diarrhea and constipation
* Toxic accumulation and toxicity syndromes
Mechanisms of Action
It is unknown by what mechanism apples may affect lung function or lower the risk of lung cancer. It has been proposed that the antioxidant flavonoid quercetin may play a major role (Le Marchand, et al., 2000; Butland, et al., 2000). Pectins and pectin-like rhamnogalacturonans found in apples have pronounced antimutagenic effects against 1-nitropyrene induced mutagenicity in vitro (Hensel, A. and Meier, K., 1999). In vitro, pectin polysaccharides most likely interact directly with cells (Salmonella typhimurium) to sterically protect them from mutagenic attack.
As well, apple pectin decreases the incidence and number of dimethylhydrazine- and azoxymethane-induced colon tumors in rats (Ohkami, H. et al., 1995; Tazawn, K. et al., 1997; Tazawa, K. et al. 1999). It is also believed that pectin lowers [beta]-glucuronidase activity, a key enzymatic step in carcinogen activation and tumor initiation in the colon.
In the intestine, apple pectin is a bulk-forming agent similar to psyllium and prevents diarrhea and constipation by a similar mechanism. Pectin also may modify intestinal bacterial enzyme activity in favor of a reduction of toxic breakdown products in the gut (Mallett, A. K. et al., 1987). This may contribute to a chemoprotective effect in colon carcinogenesis.
Research
Apples in lung function and lung cancer
Researchers (Le Marchand, et al., 2000) found a statistically significant inverse relationship between lung cancer risk and food sources high in the isoflavone quercetin (anions and apples) after controlling for smoking and intakes of saturated fat and [beta]-carotene in a population-based, case-controlled study conducted in Hawaii (Table 1).
A long-term cross-sectional analysis of a cohort of 2512 Welshmen aged 45-59 living in Caerphilly, Wales between 1979 and 1983 found that lung function was linearly associated with dietary apple intake (Table 2) (Butland, et al., 2000).
This study additionally found that the age-related decline in lung function over five years in these men was offset by consuming five or more apples per week during the study period (Butland, et al., 2000).
Apple pectin is the soluble fiber fraction of the apple fruit. Pectin comes in liquid or dried form and the source is the solid fruit residue with 10-20% pectin in the dried mass (Fleming, 2000). The pectin is extracted from the dried residue at pH 1.5-3 and at temperatures ranging from 60-100[degrees]C.
Known Medicinal Constituents
The most well-recognized and evaluated medicinal constituents found in apples include:
* Quercetin and other flavonoids
* Pectins
* Tannins
* Vitamins, especially ascorbic acid (3-30 mg/100 g)
* Fruit acids, chiefly malic acid
Indications for Use
Apples and apple pectin are indicated for use in the following health challenges:
* Impaired lung function
* Lung cancer
* Colon cancer
* Diarrhea and constipation
* Toxic accumulation and toxicity syndromes
Mechanisms of Action
It is unknown by what mechanism apples may affect lung function or lower the risk of lung cancer. It has been proposed that the antioxidant flavonoid quercetin may play a major role (Le Marchand, et al., 2000; Butland, et al., 2000). Pectins and pectin-like rhamnogalacturonans found in apples have pronounced antimutagenic effects against 1-nitropyrene induced mutagenicity in vitro (Hensel, A. and Meier, K., 1999). In vitro, pectin polysaccharides most likely interact directly with cells (Salmonella typhimurium) to sterically protect them from mutagenic attack.
As well, apple pectin decreases the incidence and number of dimethylhydrazine- and azoxymethane-induced colon tumors in rats (Ohkami, H. et al., 1995; Tazawn, K. et al., 1997; Tazawa, K. et al. 1999). It is also believed that pectin lowers [beta]-glucuronidase activity, a key enzymatic step in carcinogen activation and tumor initiation in the colon.
In the intestine, apple pectin is a bulk-forming agent similar to psyllium and prevents diarrhea and constipation by a similar mechanism. Pectin also may modify intestinal bacterial enzyme activity in favor of a reduction of toxic breakdown products in the gut (Mallett, A. K. et al., 1987). This may contribute to a chemoprotective effect in colon carcinogenesis.
Research
Apples in lung function and lung cancer
Researchers (Le Marchand, et al., 2000) found a statistically significant inverse relationship between lung cancer risk and food sources high in the isoflavone quercetin (anions and apples) after controlling for smoking and intakes of saturated fat and [beta]-carotene in a population-based, case-controlled study conducted in Hawaii (Table 1).
A long-term cross-sectional analysis of a cohort of 2512 Welshmen aged 45-59 living in Caerphilly, Wales between 1979 and 1983 found that lung function was linearly associated with dietary apple intake (Table 2) (Butland, et al., 2000).
This study additionally found that the age-related decline in lung function over five years in these men was offset by consuming five or more apples per week during the study period (Butland, et al., 2000).
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